Gross (1996) stated that psychology
could be defined as
'... the science of
mind and behaviour.'
In resemblance to the definition,
psychology is a broad topic in which numerous theories and concepts exist.
These theories and concepts are often applied across various types of
psychology, such as sport which has its own form of psychology. According to
Cox (2007, p.g 5)
'Sport psychology
is a science in which the principles of psychology are applied in a sport or
exercise setting.'
But why is sports psychology so
important? Furthermore according to Cox (2007) 'it's used to enhance sports
performance, but most psychologists are not content with enhancing performance
alone but also human enrichment.’ However it could be either sports performance
effecting enrichment or enrichment affecting the performance. Practitioners of
psychology are constantly coming up with theories and concepts to try and grasp
a better understanding of why certain things happen in sport. For example
Eysenck's trait theory, where people take into consideration personality and
conclude whether they are introverted or extroverted. (Leffner, L, C, 2014)
Many theorise that introvert characters are better suited to individual sports
and extroverts to team sports. (Kestenbaum, C, 1988)
Peyton Manning was drafted by NFL team Indianapolis
Colts over Ryan Leaf due to his personality assessment, showing his strong
extrovert character. He went on to be five time winner of the MVP (Most
Valuable Player) award. (Carey, 1999) Rafael Nadal a very humble champion,
within the world of individual’s tennis, both backing up the theory. However
Paul Scholes 11 time premier league winner and two time champions league with
Manchester United is also a very introverted character, as well as John McEnroe
once labelled'hysterically extroverted'(Adams, T, 2003) despite
exceeding at an individual sport.
Psychology within sport is always
creating these sorts of debates about theories. Within this blog theories about
arousal and stress will be critically analysed in the same way as shown above.
Numerous theories of arousal have been projected to attempt to show the
link between arousal and performance. According to Spielberger (2004) preparing
for competition and the actual taking part causes a chain reaction in the
central nervous system (CNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) that
creates arousal. The main three theories linked are; the drive theory, inverted
u theory and the catastrophe theory.
Drive
Theory
The drive
theory is based around increased levels of arousal creating more of a
motivation to perform having a positive effect on performance. This theory can
also depend on the task, one that is well practiced in front of an audience
would often performed efficiently although see (Catastrophe theory) which disputes this. Whereas a new or complex
task could cause added pressure and failure. (Goldschmied et al. 2014)
Figure 1. Arousal and
performance increase
Within the world
of sport there are some great examples that relate to this theory. In 1995
South Africa held the rugby world cup in their own nation, an exciting time for
all South African rugby fans and stars. Joel Theodore Stransky went on to score
all the points including a famous late drop kick in a 15-12 victory over New
Zealand, perfect example of someone who performed significantly due to an
increase of arousal. Showing high motivation to perform in front of his home
nation on the world stage.
But surely if just
getting excited meant you could be a world champion then wouldn’t everyone do
it? An investigation performed by Goldschmied, et al (2014) took the highest
home run hitters who were near record breaking milestones and compared how long
it took them to score their last five runs before reaching the milestone. The
players required significantly more bats before the milestone compared to the
five after despite being well practiced and exceeding at the skill. They
believe this was due to increase arousal, causing the excitement to actually
add more pressure or anxiety. Showing that it could indeed have the opposite effect.
As Kerr (1987) stated the drive theory doesn’t take into consideration anxiety
when there is an increase in arousal, making it hard to find a strong
relationship between arousal and performance.
Inverted U theory
The Inverted U
theory states that arousal enhances performance, only to a certain point
(optimum arousal.) Unlike the drive theory where continuance of arousal is
deemed good, after the optimum arousal stage is met, further increase causes
performance to decline. (Krane, V, 1992)
Figure 2. Inverted U
theory, showing optimal arousal and decline if arousal continues.
Take Zinedine
Zidane for example, captain of the French national team in the 2006 World Cup
final. Playing with excitement, taking a risky penalty and leading for his home
nation, he looked like a true champion. Until the 110th minute where
he head butts opposition defender Marco Materazzi. We already saw Zidane had
increased levels of arousal with the way he chipped the penalty, the inverted U
theory shows that he did this because his levels of arousal carried on to
increase past the optimal level declining performance and hindering judgement
and costing his team the world cup final.
The inverted U theory has been criticised by researchers who
have stated the hypothesis doesn’t fully explain the relationship between
arousal and performance. (Jones & Hardy, 1989)
Landers (1980) also
stated;
‘Inverted-U hypothesis does not explain the relationship between
arousal and performance.’
Stephen Curry evidences
Landers statement as he was MVP for NBA team Golden State Warriors in 2015,
renowned for his showboating and ‘Impossible shots.’ Curry performed superbly
in each one of the playoff games helping his team to the final. Where Curry
outplayed Four Time MVP Lebron James, arousal must have been high, he had already won MVP and was in the play off final but it didn’t decline his
performance in anyway. If anything this would demonstrate the drive theory. Supporting
Landers, Jones and Hardy’s statement about the theory.
Catastrophe Theory
The catastrophe theory still takes into
consideration the arousal level but also (somatic anxiety) this model looks
more in depth at combining the physical symptoms (excitement, butterflies) and
the cognitive anxiety (mental symptoms) and its link to performance. This
theory takes into consideration arousal, anxiety and performance unlike the inverted
U theory. Although are similar in the way if anxiety and arousal is below or
above optimal level it affects performance. (Hardy & Fazey, 1987.) Hardy
& Fazey (1987) also stated that somatic anxiety is not detrimental to
performance. However if cognitive anxiety or both are at high levels then this
is when a catastrophe (choke) occurs. Famously Steve Boswell ruined his career
in what was called the ‘worst over ever’ where he bowled 5 wides in six bowls
and continued to bowl even more wides. Boswell is a great example of someone
who choked, when a senior figure told him the night before not to mess up in
the C&G trophy final. Also a good example of state anxiety within a sports
performer.
Wales had not
played in a few months before their opener of the world cup against Canada.
Players mentioned their nervousness before the game, especially on the team bus
even so Wales went on to win the game comfortably. So why on this occasion did
the team not choke despite the whole team subdued to anxiety? A test conducted by Hardy & Parfitt (1991)
showed that a ladies basketball team scored significantly higher when
performing with high cognitive anxiety, rather than higher somatic anxiety
disagreeing with Hardy & Fazey’s (1987) theory. Perhaps this was the Reason
Wales didn’t choke, as they mentioned feeling nervous on the team bus, but
arousal levels may have lowered during the team talk and out on the pitch.
People often think
of stress as a negative aspect and although this can be true, stress can also
be positive. The two types of stress are known as distress (negative) and
eustress (positive). According to Branscombe, et al (2014) eustress, is
connected with somatic anxiety, causing high levels of arousal. The distress is
more linked to the cognitive anxiety, which we know has been associated to the ‘catastrophe
theory.’
Aldwin (2007, Pg.24)
defined stress as
‘The quality of experience,
produced through a person-environment transaction that, through either over
arousal or under-arousal results in psychological or physiological distress’
Aldwin further links
stress back to arousal and anxiety, especially the catastrophe theory showing
the optimal level of arousal must only be met not be subordinate or exceeded in
order not to create distress. Stress is common and will partake in everyone’s
life, especially those who participate in competitive sport as Bonnie Berger (1994,
Pg. 104) states
‘When there is little or no
competition… participants avoid negative psychological effects.’
Implying that competitive sport forms more distress, through
losing and poor performance as a few examples.
However Landers (1994) believes that competitive sport is
more a form of eustress than distress, due to research evidence by Schurr,
Ashley & Joy (1977). This research showed athletes were less trait anxious
compared to non-athletes. From this research we could assume that higher levels
of eustress are actually made up by competing in sport. Although the research doesn’t
relate to state anxiety, and when they are put in certain situations that could
affect anxiety and stress levels.
Selye (1982) theorises
that stress is physiological involving the sympathetic nervous system in his and
Cannon’s (1920) theory of fight or flight. However Selye (1982) thought that
stress was a conventional response to the stressor, known as the Gene
Adaptation Syndrome. If this was the case then we would not have seen different
responses to the same or similar situations within sport. Edinson Volquez’s
father died (stressor) an hour before his World Series game, his family told
him to continue with the game, Volquez had six strong innings giving for
baseball team Kansas City and winning the World Series. Whereas Johan Cruyff had
an attempt of kidnap of family member, and due to this remained absent for the
world tournament, in this situation the two didn’t act in the same way like
Selye theorised.
The Lazarus theory; looks at the psychological stress, it
involves the relationship of an individual and their environment. The theory
takes into consideration the stressors created in their environment they perform
in and how the individual responds to them. The individual cognitively
appraises the situations significant to their wellbeing. (Lazarus, 1991) The theory
shows the fact of individuals responding differently to stressors, which would
explain why there are so many examples of different reactions within sport to
similar situations.
Coping with Stress
Along with Lazarus’s theory (1991) came the
coping strategies that are actually use to optimise performance within sport,
rather than letting stress overcome the individual. (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984) According to Anshel (2005) it’s vital to understand the best approach to
manage sports performers stress. Four ways researchers have come up with to do
so are; ‘Reduction in stressors, a modification of cognitive appraisals, a reduction
in negative effects, and increase in positive effects and facilitating
effective coping behaviours.’ (Rumbold,
L, J, Fletcher, D & Daniels, K, ND)
Modification of cognitive appraisals
Hanton, Wagstaff and Fletcher (2007) used four
international sports performers to log stress appraisals comprising of
stressors, appraisals and responses. The prominent findings were that athletes
felt the organisation caused stressors with no apparent control and few coping
resources. They believe experts should modify these thoughts by ensuring
athletes believe they have control and have sufficient coping resources to
optimise performance.
A reduction in negative effects,
and increase in positive effects
Etzel et al (2015)
states that reducing negatives reactions to stress and increasing positives can
create better relationships with others, reduces distress and can benefit
physically and emotionally. Learning to tolerate discomfort is seen as a coping
resource for this. Although Dryden and Neenan (2012) believe that learning to
tolerate discomfort can be conceived as teaching people to put up with
negatives which could have an adverse effect on performance.
Reduction of stressors
O’Driscoll (2013) mentions reducing stressors
and compares it to the flight response in Selye and Cannon’s fight or flight
theory, implying people would flight rather than fight. This in turn would
reduce the stressors rather than Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) theory of coping.
Reducing all stressors would be physically impossible as some are not
controllable. David Bentley is a retired footballer, who could not reduce stressors
on or off the pitch, the most prominent stressor his wife’s pregnancy and
retired age 26.
Facilitating effective coping behaviours
Coping is the
solving of problems, in this example the problem is stress, by enabling coping
behaviours, performance could be improved or remain at optimal level.
Fredrickson (2001) believed emotion- focused coping would focus a person’s
attention to the task at hand, rather than a criticism from team mates, a coach
or the crowd. Giving the performer a greater chance of creative thinking, and
enabling optimal performance. In which a study conducted by Nicholls et al
(2012) of athletes pleasant emotions linking to better task performing, backing
the theory. Although Brooks (2014) states that the experience of excitement and
anxiety have a similar feel and are brought on by high arousal, the pleasant
emotions can improve performance through excitement but the high arousal can
lead to anxiousness and stress (Catastrophe
theory) hindering performance.
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