Stress
People often think
of stress as a negative aspect and although this can be true, stress can also
be positive. The two types of stress are known as distress (negative) and
eustress (positive). According to Branscombe, et al (2014) eustress, is
connected with somatic anxiety, causing high levels of arousal. The distress is
more linked to the cognitive anxiety, which we know has been associated to the ‘catastrophe
theory.’
Aldwin (2007, Pg.24)
defined stress as
‘The quality of experience,
produced through a person-environment transaction that, through either over
arousal or under-arousal results in psychological or physiological distress’
Aldwin further links
stress back to arousal and anxiety, especially the catastrophe theory showing
the optimal level of arousal must only be met not be subordinate or exceeded in
order not to create distress. Stress is common and will partake in everyone’s
life, especially those who participate in competitive sport as Bonnie Berger (1994,
Pg. 104) states
‘When there is little or no
competition… participants avoid negative psychological effects.’
Implying that competitive sport forms more distress, through
losing and poor performance as a few examples.
However Landers (1994) believes that competitive sport is
more a form of eustress than distress, due to research evidence by Schurr,
Ashley & Joy (1977). This research showed athletes were less trait anxious
compared to non-athletes. From this research we could assume that higher levels
of eustress are actually made up by competing in sport. Although the research doesn’t
relate to state anxiety, and when they are put in certain situations that could
affect anxiety and stress levels.
Selye (1982) theorises
that stress is physiological involving the sympathetic nervous system in his and
Cannon’s (1920) theory of fight or flight. However Selye (1982) thought that
stress was a conventional response to the stressor, known as the Gene
Adaptation Syndrome. If this was the case then we would not have seen different
responses to the same or similar situations within sport. Edinson Volquez’s
father died (stressor) an hour before his World Series game, his family told
him to continue with the game, Volquez had six strong innings giving for
baseball team Kansas City and winning the World Series. Whereas Johan Cruyff had
an attempt of kidnap of family member, and due to this remained absent for the
world tournament, in this situation the two didn’t act in the same way like
Selye theorised.
The Lazarus theory; looks at the psychological stress, it
involves the relationship of an individual and their environment. The theory
takes into consideration the stressors created in their environment they perform
in and how the individual responds to them. The individual cognitively
appraises the situations significant to their wellbeing. (Lazarus, 1991) The theory
shows the fact of individuals responding differently to stressors, which would
explain why there are so many examples of different reactions within sport to
similar situations.
Coping with Stress
Along with Lazarus’s theory (1991) came the
coping strategies that are actually use to optimise performance within sport,
rather than letting stress overcome the individual. (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984) According to Anshel (2005) it’s vital to understand the best approach to
manage sports performers stress. Four ways researchers have come up with to do
so are; ‘Reduction in stressors, a modification of cognitive appraisals, a reduction
in negative effects, and increase in positive effects and facilitating
effective coping behaviours.’ (Rumbold,
L, J, Fletcher, D & Daniels, K, ND)
Modification of cognitive appraisals
Hanton, Wagstaff and Fletcher (2007) used four
international sports performers to log stress appraisals comprising of
stressors, appraisals and responses. The prominent findings were that athletes
felt the organisation caused stressors with no apparent control and few coping
resources. They believe experts should modify these thoughts by ensuring
athletes believe they have control and have sufficient coping resources to
optimise performance.
A reduction in negative effects, and increase in positive effects
Etzel et al (2015)
states that reducing negatives reactions to stress and increasing positives can
create better relationships with others, reduces distress and can benefit
physically and emotionally. Learning to tolerate discomfort is seen as a coping
resource for this. Although Dryden and Neenan (2012) believe that learning to
tolerate discomfort can be conceived as teaching people to put up with
negatives which could have an adverse effect on performance.
Reduction of stressors
O’Driscoll (2013) mentions reducing stressors
and compares it to the flight response in Selye and Cannon’s fight or flight
theory, implying people would flight rather than fight. This in turn would
reduce the stressors rather than Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) theory of coping.
Reducing all stressors would be physically impossible as some are not
controllable. David Bentley is a retired footballer, who could not reduce stressors
on or off the pitch, the most prominent stressor his wife’s pregnancy and
retired age 26.
Facilitating effective coping behaviours
Coping is the
solving of problems, in this example the problem is stress, by enabling coping
behaviours, performance could be improved or remain at optimal level.
Fredrickson (2001) believed emotion- focused coping would focus a person’s
attention to the task at hand, rather than a criticism from team mates, a coach
or the crowd. Giving the performer a greater chance of creative thinking, and
enabling optimal performance. In which a study conducted by Nicholls et al
(2012) of athletes pleasant emotions linking to better task performing, backing
the theory. Although Brooks (2014) states that the experience of excitement and
anxiety have a similar feel and are brought on by high arousal, the pleasant
emotions can improve performance through excitement but the high arousal can
lead to anxiousness and stress (Catastrophe
theory) hindering performance.
No comments:
Post a Comment