Monday 28 March 2016

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 Alex Sennett          Student Number: 336318           Word Count: 2205         Lecturer: Scott Reed


Psychology of Sports Coaching




LEARNING OUTCOMES:
LO1: Demonstrate knowledge and critical understanding of the theoretical underpinning of psychology in sports performance.

LO2: Demonstrate knowledge of the main methods of enquiry in arousal and its effects on sports performance.

LO3: Communicate effectively information and arguments on the theories of stress and apply the theories to optimising sports performance.

An Introduction to Sports Psychology


Introduction

    Gross (1996) stated that psychology could be defined as 

'... the science of mind and behaviour.'  

    In resemblance to the definition, psychology is a broad topic in which numerous theories and concepts exist. These theories and concepts are often applied across various types of psychology, such as sport which has its own form of psychology. According to Cox (2007, p.g 5) 

'Sport psychology is a science in which the principles of psychology are applied in a sport or exercise setting.' 


    But why is sports psychology so important? Furthermore according to Cox (2007) 'it's used to enhance sports performance, but most psychologists are not content with enhancing performance alone but also human enrichment.’ However it could be either sports performance effecting enrichment or enrichment affecting the performance. Practitioners of psychology are constantly coming up with theories and concepts to try and grasp a better understanding of why certain things happen in sport. For example Eysenck's trait theory, where people take into consideration personality and conclude whether they are introverted or extroverted. (Leffner, L, C, 2014) Many theorise that introvert characters are better suited to individual sports and extroverts to team sports. (Kestenbaum, C, 1988)
Peyton Manning was drafted by NFL team Indianapolis Colts over Ryan Leaf due to his personality assessment, showing his strong extrovert character. He went on to be five time winner of the MVP (Most Valuable Player) award. (Carey, 1999) Rafael Nadal a very humble champion, within the world of individual’s tennis, both backing up the theory. However Paul Scholes 11 time premier league winner and two time champions league with Manchester United is also a very introverted character, as well as John McEnroe once labelled 'hysterically extroverted' (Adams, T, 2003) despite exceeding at an individual sport.


    Psychology within sport is always creating these sorts of debates about theories. Within this blog theories about arousal and stress will be critically analysed in the same way as shown above. 

Arousal & It's Effects On Sports Performance


Arousal


    Numerous theories of arousal have been projected to attempt to show the link between arousal and performance. According to Spielberger (2004) preparing for competition and the actual taking part causes a chain reaction in the central nervous system (CNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) that creates arousal. The main three theories linked are; the drive theory, inverted u theory and the catastrophe theory.

   
Drive Theory

  
   The drive theory is based around increased levels of arousal creating more of a motivation to perform having a positive effect on performance. This theory can also depend on the task, one that is well practiced in front of an audience would often performed efficiently although see (Catastrophe theory) which disputes this. Whereas a new or complex task could cause added pressure and failure. (Goldschmied et al. 2014)





Figure 1. Arousal and performance increase

    Within the world of sport there are some great examples that relate to this theory. In 1995 South Africa held the rugby world cup in their own nation, an exciting time for all South African rugby fans and stars. Joel Theodore Stransky went on to score all the points including a famous late drop kick in a 15-12 victory over New Zealand, perfect example of someone who performed significantly due to an increase of arousal. Showing high motivation to perform in front of his home nation on the world stage.

   But surely if just getting excited meant you could be a world champion then wouldn’t everyone do it? An investigation performed by Goldschmied, et al (2014) took the highest home run hitters who were near record breaking milestones and compared how long it took them to score their last five runs before reaching the milestone. The players required significantly more bats before the milestone compared to the five after despite being well practiced and exceeding at the skill. They believe this was due to increase arousal, causing the excitement to actually add more pressure or anxiety. Showing that it could indeed have the opposite effect. As Kerr (1987) stated the drive theory doesn’t take into consideration anxiety when there is an increase in arousal, making it hard to find a strong relationship between arousal and performance.






Inverted U theory

    The Inverted U theory states that arousal enhances performance, only to a certain point (optimum arousal.) Unlike the drive theory where continuance of arousal is deemed good, after the optimum arousal stage is met, further increase causes performance to decline. (Krane, V, 1992)




    

Figure 2. Inverted U theory, showing optimal arousal and decline if arousal continues.

   Take Zinedine Zidane for example, captain of the French national team in the 2006 World Cup final. Playing with excitement, taking a risky penalty and leading for his home nation, he looked like a true champion. Until the 110th minute where he head butts opposition defender Marco Materazzi. We already saw Zidane had increased levels of arousal with the way he chipped the penalty, the inverted U theory shows that he did this because his levels of arousal carried on to increase past the optimal level declining performance and hindering judgement and costing his team the world cup final.



The inverted U theory has been criticised by researchers who have stated the hypothesis doesn’t fully explain the relationship between arousal and performance. (Jones & Hardy, 1989)

  Landers (1980) also stated;


‘Inverted-U hypothesis does not explain the relationship between arousal and performance.’

    Stephen Curry evidences Landers statement as he was MVP for NBA team Golden State Warriors in 2015, renowned for his showboating and ‘Impossible shots.’ Curry performed superbly in each one of the playoff games helping his team to the final. Where Curry outplayed Four Time MVP Lebron James, arousal must have been high, he had already won MVP and was in the play off final but it didn’t decline his performance in anyway. If anything this would demonstrate the drive theory. Supporting Landers, Jones and Hardy’s statement about the theory.




Catastrophe Theory

    The catastrophe theory still takes into consideration the arousal level but also (somatic anxiety) this model looks more in depth at combining the physical symptoms (excitement, butterflies) and the cognitive anxiety (mental symptoms) and its link to performance. This theory takes into consideration arousal, anxiety and performance unlike the inverted U theory. Although are similar in the way if anxiety and arousal is below or above optimal level it affects performance. (Hardy & Fazey, 1987.) Hardy & Fazey (1987) also stated that somatic anxiety is not detrimental to performance. However if cognitive anxiety or both are at high levels then this is when a catastrophe (choke) occurs. Famously Steve Boswell ruined his career in what was called the ‘worst over ever’ where he bowled 5 wides in six bowls and continued to bowl even more wides. Boswell is a great example of someone who choked, when a senior figure told him the night before not to mess up in the C&G trophy final. Also a good example of state anxiety within a sports performer.


    Wales had not played in a few months before their opener of the world cup against Canada. Players mentioned their nervousness before the game, especially on the team bus even so Wales went on to win the game comfortably. So why on this occasion did the team not choke despite the whole team subdued to anxiety?  A test conducted by Hardy & Parfitt (1991) showed that a ladies basketball team scored significantly higher when performing with high cognitive anxiety, rather than higher somatic anxiety disagreeing with Hardy & Fazey’s (1987) theory. Perhaps this was the Reason Wales didn’t choke, as they mentioned feeling nervous on the team bus, but arousal levels may have lowered during the team talk and out on the pitch. 

Stress & It's Effects On Sports Performance

Stress

   People often think of stress as a negative aspect and although this can be true, stress can also be positive. The two types of stress are known as distress (negative) and eustress (positive). According to Branscombe, et al (2014) eustress, is connected with somatic anxiety, causing high levels of arousal. The distress is more linked to the cognitive anxiety, which we know has been associated to the ‘catastrophe theory.’
   
   Aldwin (2007, Pg.24) defined stress as
‘The quality of experience, produced through a person-environment transaction that, through either over arousal or under-arousal results in psychological or physiological distress’
   
Aldwin further links stress back to arousal and anxiety, especially the catastrophe theory showing the optimal level of arousal must only be met not be subordinate or exceeded in order not to create distress. Stress is common and will partake in everyone’s life, especially those who participate in competitive sport as Bonnie Berger (1994, Pg. 104) states
‘When there is little or no competition… participants avoid negative psychological effects.’

Implying that competitive sport forms more distress, through losing and poor performance as a few examples.

However Landers (1994) believes that competitive sport is more a form of eustress than distress, due to research evidence by Schurr, Ashley & Joy (1977). This research showed athletes were less trait anxious compared to non-athletes. From this research we could assume that higher levels of eustress are actually made up by competing in sport. Although the research doesn’t relate to state anxiety, and when they are put in certain situations that could affect anxiety and stress levels.

   Selye (1982) theorises that stress is physiological involving the sympathetic nervous system in his and Cannon’s (1920) theory of fight or flight. However Selye (1982) thought that stress was a conventional response to the stressor, known as the Gene Adaptation Syndrome. If this was the case then we would not have seen different responses to the same or similar situations within sport. Edinson Volquez’s father died (stressor) an hour before his World Series game, his family told him to continue with the game, Volquez had six strong innings giving for baseball team Kansas City and winning the World Series. Whereas Johan Cruyff had an attempt of kidnap of family member, and due to this remained absent for the world tournament, in this situation the two didn’t act in the same way like Selye theorised.
The Lazarus theory; looks at the psychological stress, it involves the relationship of an individual and their environment. The theory takes into consideration the stressors created in their environment they perform in and how the individual responds to them. The individual cognitively appraises the situations significant to their wellbeing. (Lazarus, 1991) The theory shows the fact of individuals responding differently to stressors, which would explain why there are so many examples of different reactions within sport to similar situations.


Coping with Stress

    Along with Lazarus’s theory (1991) came the coping strategies that are actually use to optimise performance within sport, rather than letting stress overcome the individual. (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) According to Anshel (2005) it’s vital to understand the best approach to manage sports performers stress. Four ways researchers have come up with to do so are; ‘Reduction in stressors, a modification of cognitive appraisals, a reduction in negative effects, and increase in positive effects and facilitating effective coping behaviours.’   (Rumbold, L, J, Fletcher, D & Daniels, K, ND)


Modification of cognitive appraisals

    Hanton, Wagstaff and Fletcher (2007) used four international sports performers to log stress appraisals comprising of stressors, appraisals and responses. The prominent findings were that athletes felt the organisation caused stressors with no apparent control and few coping resources. They believe experts should modify these thoughts by ensuring athletes believe they have control and have sufficient coping resources to optimise performance.



A reduction in negative effects, and increase in positive effects

      Etzel et al (2015) states that reducing negatives reactions to stress and increasing positives can create better relationships with others, reduces distress and can benefit physically and emotionally. Learning to tolerate discomfort is seen as a coping resource for this. Although Dryden and Neenan (2012) believe that learning to tolerate discomfort can be conceived as teaching people to put up with negatives which could have an adverse effect on performance.  

  


Reduction of stressors


     O’Driscoll (2013) mentions reducing stressors and compares it to the flight response in Selye and Cannon’s fight or flight theory, implying people would flight rather than fight. This in turn would reduce the stressors rather than Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) theory of coping. Reducing all stressors would be physically impossible as some are not controllable. David Bentley is a retired footballer, who could not reduce stressors on or off the pitch, the most prominent stressor his wife’s pregnancy and retired age 26. 







Facilitating effective coping behaviours

     Coping is the solving of problems, in this example the problem is stress, by enabling coping behaviours, performance could be improved or remain at optimal level. Fredrickson (2001) believed emotion- focused coping would focus a person’s attention to the task at hand, rather than a criticism from team mates, a coach or the crowd. Giving the performer a greater chance of creative thinking, and enabling optimal performance. In which a study conducted by Nicholls et al (2012) of athletes pleasant emotions linking to better task performing, backing the theory. Although Brooks (2014) states that the experience of excitement and anxiety have a similar feel and are brought on by high arousal, the pleasant emotions can improve performance through excitement but the high arousal can lead to anxiousness and stress (Catastrophe theory) hindering performance.


Reference Section


Reference Section

A

Adams, T (2003) On Being John McEnroe. London. Yellow Jersey Press.

Aldwin, C.M. (2007). Stress, coping and development: An integrative perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press

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B

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C

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Cox (2007) Sports Psychology: Concepts & Applications. New York, McGraw- Hill.

D

Dryden, W & Neenan, M (2012) Learning from Mistakes in Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy. New York. Routledge.

E

Etzel, et al (2015) Mindfulness for the Elite Coach. Olympic Coach. [Online] Volume 26, Issue 3, Part 32. Pg.7. Available From:
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F

Fredrickson, B.L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist. Volume 56. Part 218–226.

G

Goldschmied, et al (2014) Drive Theory & Home Run Milestones in Baseball: An Historical Analysis. Perceptual & Motor Skills: Exercise & Sport. Vol. 118. Part 1-11. Pg.1

Gross (1996) Psychology, the science of mind and behaviour. London, Hodder and Stoughton.

H

Hanton, S Wagstaff, C and Fletcher, D (2007) Coping With Stressors Encountered in Sport Organisations. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. Volume 29. Part 210.

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K

Kerr, J. (1987). Structural phenomenology, arousal and performance. Journal of Human Movement Studies. Volume 13. Part 211- 229.

Klastenbaum, C (1988) Handbook of Clinical Assessment of Children & Adolescents. New York. New York University Press.

Krane, V (1992) Conceptual and Methodological Considerations in Sport Anxiety Research: From the Inverted- U Hypothesis to Catastrophe Theory. Quest (Human Kinetics.) Volume 44, Part 72-87. Pg. 73

L

Landers, D.M. (1980). The arousal-performance relationship revisited. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. Volume 51. Part 77-90.

Lazarus, R.S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press

Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.

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O

O’Driscoll, P, M (2013) Coping with Stress: A Challenge for Theory, Research & Practice. Stress & Health. Volume 29. Part 89-90.

R

Rumbold, L, J, Fletcher, D & Daniels, K (ND) Stress Management with Sports Performers. [Online] Available From: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/7388/1/Rumbold_Fletcher_Daniels_Stress_management.pdf
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S

Schurr-. K.T., Ashley. M.A. & Joy, K.L. (1977). A multivariate analysis of male athlete characteristics; Sport type and success. Multivariate Experimental Clinical Research. Volume 3, Part 53-68

Selye, H. (1982). History and present status of the stress concept. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz fEds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (P.g 7-17). New York: Free Press.

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